Integration and test issues with Open Radio Access Networks (O-RAN) arise from their multi-vendor architecture. O-RAN consists of separate elements, such as radios, baseband units, and software, that can be sourced from different vendors. O-RAN was developed to promote greater flexibility, competition, and cost-efficiency compared to proprietary RAN alternatives. The elements are complex sub-systems that…
What are the fiber options for 5G fronthaul?
Fiber is required to deliver low latency, which is crucial for a 5G fronthaul between the base station and the core network. Several fiber options can increase installation density and/or flexibility in this fronthaul. Common choices include bend-insensitive fiber (BIF), OM5 fiber, ultra-low-loss (ULL) fiber, and reduced-diameter fiber. Each offers different performance tradeoffs for specific…
What is a scheduler and what does it do in a 5G network?
A scheduler dynamically allocates resources, including time, frequency, and power, to serve user equipment (UEs) connected to a base station (gNB) on a 5G network. Delivering high-quality service (QoS) to diverse 5G use cases, such as ultra-reliable Low-Latency Communication (uRLLC), Massive Machine-Type Communication (mMTC), and Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), is critical. Scheduling is not explicitly…
Why do high frequency signals reflect?
High-frequency signals, like those used in 5G communications, are reflected by impedance discontinuities. Their shorter wavelengths can change their impedance. When a signal arrives at an impedance transition, part of it is absorbed and transmitted, and part is reflected. The strength of the reflection depends on the magnitude of the impedance mismatch. The phenomenon of…
How are the thermal issues with 5G radios being addressed?
All options are deployed when dealing with 5G radio thermal issues in base stations and handsets. Depending on the circumstance, thermal challenges are addressed using a combination of passive and active thermal management, packaging and hardware design improvements, and advanced software. This article presents a brief overview of this complex landscape. Due to the increased…
What are the EMC issues for 5G and IoT devices?
5G and IoT applications can involve high densities of devices operating on similar frequencies. Designers of electronic devices regularly pay close attention to minimizing the generation of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and ensuring electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Minimizing electromagnetic susceptibility (EMS) can also be important for 5G and IoT devices to protect them from potential cumulative effects…
How does 5G help secure edge connectivity?
If not thoughtfully and thoroughly implemented, 5G security can be a mixed bag. On the one hand, 5G has new features designed to enhance security, such as stronger encryption algorithms and better user authentication. At the same time, 5G networks face several security challenges, including new attack vectors and a larger attack surface. This article…
Where do fiber optics fit into automotive wiring harnesses?
Fiber optics can address several important needs for automotive wiring harnesses, including lightweight, high bandwidth, and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). This article begins by reviewing the benefits of fiber optics in automotive wiring harnesses. It then considers how fiber optics supports media-oriented system transport (MOST) networks and advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). It then looks into…
What’s a smart wiring harness?
A smart wiring harness implements protective functions like short circuit and over-temperature protection and reporting. By implementing common functions, they reduce the amount of wiring in the vehicle and eliminate the need for modules like fuse boxes. Smart wiring harnesses are found in military, construction, commercial, and public transport vehicles. They are beginning to find…
How does a 224 Gbps-PAM4 connector work?
Designing 224 Gigabits per second four-level pulse amplitude modulation (224 Gbps-PAM4) interconnects is challenging. But it’s required to support the demands of generative artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), 1.6 Terabits per second (Tbps) networking, and other high-speed applications in advanced data centers, as well as 5G and 6G communications infrastructure. At these elevated data…